Thesis.tex

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%% Robin Lovelace's thesis (based on Sunil Patel's design from http://uk.tug.org/)
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% Set up the document
\documentclass[a4paper, 11pt, twoside]{Thesis}  % Based on the ECS Thesis style
\usepackage{makeidx}
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% Making R code work!
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\begin{document}
\pagenumbering{roman}
% \ThisCenterWallPaper{1}{wallpaper}%
\frontmatter	  % Begin Roman style (i, ii, iii, iv...) page numbering

% Set up the Title Page
\title  {The energy costs of commuting: a spatial microsimulation approach}
\authors  {\texorpdfstring
            {\href{mailto:rob00x@gmail.com}{Robin Lovelace, MSc BSc}}
            {Robin Lovelace}
            }
\addresses  {\groupname\\\deptname\\\univname}  % Do not change this here, instead these must be set in the "Thesis.cls" file, please look through it instead
\date       {\today}
\subject    {}
\keywords   {}

\maketitle
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% http://www.sunilpatel.co.uk/thesis-template/template-faq/ 4 2 page print!!!
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% Declaration Page required for the Thesis, your institution may give you a different text to place here
% \Declaration{
% 
% \addtocontents{toc}{\vspace{1em}}  % Add a gap in the Contents, for aesthetics
% 
% I, Robin Lovelace, declare that this thesis titled, `The energy costs of commuting: a spatial microsimulation approach'
% and the work presented in it are my own. I confirm that:
% 
% \begin{itemize}
% \item[\tiny{$\blacksquare$}] This work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this University.
% 
% \item[\tiny{$\blacksquare$}] Where any part of this thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this University or any other institution, this has been clearly stated.
% 
% \item[\tiny{$\blacksquare$}] Where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed.
% 
% \item[\tiny{$\blacksquare$}] Where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work.
% 
% \item[\tiny{$\blacksquare$}] I have acknowledged all main sources of help.
% 
% \item[\tiny{$\blacksquare$}] Where the thesis is based on work done by myself jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself.
% \\
% \end{itemize}
% 
% 
% Signed:\\
% \rule[1em]{25em}{0.5pt}  % This prints a line for the signature
% 
% Date:\\
% \rule[1em]{25em}{0.5pt}  % This prints a line to write the date
% }
\clearpage  % Declaration ended, now start a new page

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%%%%% Uncomment from here!
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% The "Funny Quote Page"
\pagestyle{empty}  % No headers or footers for the following pages

\null\vfill
% Now comes the "Funny Quote", written in italics
\textit{``A finales del siglo XX, y gracias a su automovil privado, un simple
trabajador pod\'{i}a residir en un lugar determinado pero desempe\~nar su trabajo,
diariamente, en otro lugar que se encuentra a 50 o 60 km de distancia. Este
hecho, que para tal ciudadano formaba parte de la rutina de su vida
cotidiana, constituye, sin duda, uno de los m\'{a}s grandes enigmas de la
antropolog\'{i}a y la historia''}

\begin{flushright}
Jos\'{e} Ardillo, \emph{El Salario del Gigante}
\end{flushright}

\textit{``Towards the end of the 20$^{th}$ century, and thanks to the private
automobile, a simple worker could live in one place but carry out their work,
daily, 50 to
60 km away. This fact, which for the citizen formed part of their everyday
routine, constitutes, without doubt, one of the greatest enigmas of Anthropology
and History''}

\begin{flushright}
Author's translation
\end{flushright}



\vfill\vfill\vfill\vfill\vfill\vfill\null
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% The Abstract Page
\addtotoc{Abstract}  % Add the "Abstract" page entry to the Contents
\abstract{
\addtocontents{toc}{\vspace{1em}}  % Add a gap in the Contents, for aesthetics
Commuting is a daily 
ritual for a large proportion of the world's population.
It is important materially,
consuming large amounts of time, money and natural resources.
% Yet, as with many routine activities, travel to work is often
% taken for granted. In terms of inflexible energy use ---
% consumption that cannot easily be cut through reduced demand --- 
% commuting is of great interest.
As with many routine activities travel to work is often taken for
granted but its energy consumption is of particular interest due to
its heavy reliance on fossil fuels and
the inflexibility of the demand for commuting.
This understudied area of knowledge, the
energy costs of travel to work, forms the basis of the thesis.

% The variability of energy use for commuting over time has been
% indicative of wider shifts in personal travel. During the 20$^{th}$
% century the trend has been for trips made by foot, rail % too woolly! rm
% or bus to be replaced by the relatively energy intensive car.
% % This represents an `energy transition',
% % a long-term shift in the way that energy is used in the human economy.
% % Since the oil price shock of the summer 2008 and subsequent global economic
% % crisis, certain statistics suggest that this particular transition may have
% % gone into reverse. Car kilometres peaked in 2008, and show no signs of
% % returning to their former levels. What this means overall remains an open question:
% % more evidence on energy supplies, patterns of behaviour and the
% % ultimate unknown --- policy responses --- will be needed before any firm
% % conclusions can be drawn. Making judgements in the relatively narrow area
% % of travel to work is a far less ambitious
% The direction of change into the 21$^{st}$ century is uncertain, however,
% especially since car use has declined since 2008. Improved understanding of commuting
% patterns could therefore benefit efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
% and hence energy use, in the transport sector overall.

There is much research into commuting and transport energy use as separate
fields, but they have rarely been combined in the same analysis, let alone
at high levels of geographical resolution.
The well-established field of spatial microsimulation
offers tools for investigating commuting patterns in detail at local and
individual
levels, with major potential benefits for transport planning.
% In this project
% the method is applied, for the first time, to investigate variability in energy
% use both between and within small administrative zones.
For the first time this method is deployed to study commuter energy
use between and within small administrative zones.
% and
% the scenarios investigated in this PhD suggest that a wide range of phenomena,
% from future oil shocks to the localisation of economic activity could lead
% the energy use of commuting to fall. C
% ommuting is also

% The study most closely related to this thesis published to date, \citep{Boussauw2009},
% found that the energy costs of commuting are highly variable over space and to
% some extent predictable.
The maps of commuter energy use presented in this thesis
illustrate this variability at national, regional and local levels.
Supporting previous research, the results suggest that a
range of geographical factors influence energy use for travel.
This
has important policy implications: when high transport energy use in commuting
is due to lack of jobs in
the vicinity, for example, modal shift (e.g.~from cars to bicycles)
on its own has a limited potential to reduce
energy costs. Such insights are quantified using existing aggregate data.
The main methodological contribution of this work, however, is to add
individual-level factors to
the analysis --- creating the potential for policy makers to also assess the
distributional
impacts of their interventions and target specific types of
commuters having high transport energy costs,
rather than treat areas as homogeneous blocks. This potential is
demonstrated with a case study of South
Yorkshire, where commuting energy use is cross-tabulated by
socio-economic variables and disaggregated over geographical space.
% The areas where commuting energy use
% is most unevenly distributed (in urban centres) will likely benefit most from
% policies that target
% the specific groups that have the greatest impact.
The areas where commuting energy use is less evenly distributed across the population, 
for example in urban centres, are
likely to benefit most from policies that target the specific groups.
Areas where commuter
energy use is more even, such as
Stocksbridge (in Northwest Sheffield), will benefit from more universal policies.

% The findings
% confirm the common-sense notion that those on high-incomes are more
% energy intensive in their travel to work behaviours and quantify by
% how much (the top income quintile uses around 3 times more energy
% for commuting than the bottom, although this varies from place to place).
% In terms of vulnerability, the research has identified deprived rural areas
% isolated from large employment centres as most at risk. Individual-level risk
% factors could include ease of relocating work more locally, opportunities
% for lift sharing or, in extreme cases, physical fitness and access to
% a suitable bicycle. None of these ideas are new, but the strength
% of evidence to support them is.

The thesis contributes to human knowledge new information about
the energy costs of commuting, its variability
at various levels and insight into the implications.
New methods of generating and analysing individual-level
data for the analysis of commuter energy use have also been developed.
% These methods are reproducible and should be of use to others % dad'd
% aiming to investigate the energy security, resource efficiency
% and long-term welfare benefits of interventions in personal travel systems.
These are reproducible (see the GitHub repository ``\href{https://github.com/Robinlovelace/thesis-reproducible}{thesis-reproducible}''
for example code and data) and will be of interest
to researchers and policy makers investigating
the energy security, resource efficiency and potential welfare impacts
of interventions in personal travel systems.
}

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% The Acknowledgements page, for thanking everyone
\acknowledgements{
\addtocontents{toc}{\vspace{1em}}  % Add a gap in the Contents, for aesthetics

It should
be acknowledged at the outset that some parts of the thesis have been published:
\begin{itemize}
 \item Parts of \cref{setsim} have been published in \emph{Computers, Environment and Urban Systems} \citep{Lovelace2013-trs}.
 \item The tutorial ``Spatial microsimulation in R'', a supplement to \citet{Lovelace2013-trs},
 is based on \Cref{simplementing}.
 \item The results presented in \cref{Chapter7} have been
 published in the \emph{Journal of Transport Geography} \citep{Lovelace2013-jtrg}.
 \item Results presented in \cref{Chapter8} have been published in \emph{Geoforum} \citep{Lovelace2014-vul}.
\end{itemize}

Thanks to my supervisors Dimitris Ballas, Matt Watson and Stephen Beck for
unceasing encouragement and guidance throughout. Dimitris has
been instrumental in developing the methodological direction of the PhD project.
I will be forever grateful for the guidance provided in the research and beyond.

Many thanks to Carlota for keeping my spirits up throughout.
To Engineers Without Borders for allowing me to get my hands dirty,
a feature too often missing from modern research. To my house-mates
for providing a fun and homely habitat in Sheffield.
To my parents, who instigated trips into the Peak District ---
the ultimate antidote to square-eyes. To my dear friends in
Sheffield, especially James Folkes for providing pedal-powered
entertainments and Joseph Moore for `moore' distractions.

Thanks to the E-Futures Doctoral Training Centre.
E-Futures was vital to this PhD, not only for providing funding
that allowed its students financial security to dedicate themselves to study.
% money and economic violence of the open labour market
% for four years.
% investigate possible solutions to the unsustainable nature of
% our current energy system.
E-Futures also provided a forum for debate.
The encouragement from peers and across disciplines was inspirational.
Neil Lowrie deserves special mention here,
as he helped channel my energy away from confrontations
with coal-fired power station operators and towards research. Thanks.

Thanks to the Department of Geography, for providing an academic
home and a quiet desk. Members of the Social
and Spatial Inequalities group (SASI), especially, provided
feedback on my work, and encouraged the investigation of
how commuting affects people, not just energy. I thank Luke Temple and Mark
Green in particular in this regard.
% for welcoming me to the department and for keeping me on
% the straight and narrow.

% Thanks to the nameless and often un-thanked people
% who allowed the
% PhD course run roughly to plan. The cleaners, porters, IT staff,
% secretaries and finance people kept things ticking over, creating the
% conditions for the impartial pursuit of knowledge.
% It should be clear, though, that this thesis is not a
% purely disinterested investigation of the energy costs of work travel.
% It is proudly driven by concern for the future
% of a civilisation facing depletion of its defining resource
% --- fossil fuels.
Thanks to the open source software movement in general and to the developers
of R and~\LaTeX~(in which the document was written) in particular.
Hadley Wickham stands out in this
regard, whose own thesis \citep{Wickham2008}, led to the ggplot2 package
used for many of the visualisations.
Thanks to Github for hosting code and data that should make the methods
and results more accessible and reproducible for
others.\footnote{Sample code
and data used can be found on {\color{blue} \href{https://github.com/Robinlovelace/}
{github.com/Robinlovelace/}}. In particular, reproducible versions of
the results can be found in the {\color{blue} \href{https://github.com/Robinlovelace/thesis-reproducible}
{thesis-reproducible}} repository. }

The thesis has benefited from the feedback of people who read 
early drafts of various sections and chapters: Milan Delor,
Ian Philips, Jake Gower, Chris Hunter, Charlotte Bjork and my father 
David Lovelace. Dan Olner's input was especially beneficial in the final 
stages. Thanks to all for providing additional feedback and support outside
of the usual academic channels.

My penultimate thank you is for writers who awoke my interest in this topic: Ivan
Illich, John Michael Greer, Howard T.~Odum, George Monbiot and
Vaclav Smil.

The final thank you is to the examiners of the thesis, Charles Pattie and
Michael Batty. 
}
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\fancyhead[LO,RE]{\emph{Abbreviations}}
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\listofsymbols{ll}  % Include a list of Abbreviations (a table of two columns)
{
{Acronym} & What it Stands For \\
%\textbf{LAH} & \textbf{L}ist \textbf{A}bbreviations \textbf{H}ere \\
kJ & kilojoules (10$^3$ J) \\
MJ & megajoules (10$^6$ J) \\
GJ & gigajoules (10$^9$ J) \\
TJ & terajoules (10$^{12}$ J) \\
PJ & petajoules (10$^{15}$ J) \\
EJ & exajoules (10$^{18}$ J) \\
\\
kWh & kilowatt hour (3.6 MJ) \\
\\
CO$_2$ & Carbon dioxide \\
EROI & Energy return on (energy) investment \\
IPF & Iterative proportional fitting \\
pkm & passenger-kilometres\\
vkm & vehicle-kilometres\\
TRS & Truncate replicate sample (integerisation method) \\
% PLF & passenger load factor (average occupancy of vehicle / n. seats)
\\
DECC & Department of Energy and Climate Change\\
Defra & Department for Environment Food \& Rural Affairs\\
NTS & National Travel Survey\\
ONS & Office for National Statistics \\
OSM & Open Street Map \\
USd & Understanding Society dataset\\
\\
% GOR & Government Office Region \\
% MSOA & Medium super output area \\
% OA & Output area \\
% TTWA & Travel to work areas \\
}

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\label{nomen}
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\listofnomenclature{lll}  % Include a list of Symbols (a three column table)
{ 
 symbol & name & unit \\
$dE$ & Euclidean distance & km \\
$dR$ & route distance & km \\
$Etrp$ & direct primary energy use per trip & J \\
$ET$ & total energy use of all commuter trips in a given area & GJ \\
$ETyr$ & total primary energy per year & GJ/yr \\
$Esys$ & total primary energy use (direct and indirect) & MJ/km \\
$Ef$ & Direct fuel (including electricity and food) energy use per kilometre &
MJ/vkm \\
$Efp$ & Energy costs of fuel production & MJ/vkm \\
$Ev$ & Energy costs of vehicle production per unit distance & MJ/vkm \\
$Eg$ & Energy costs of guideway construction per unit distance & MJ/vkm \\

$EMv$ & embodied energy of vehicle production & GJ/vehicle \\
$EMg$ & embodied energy of guideway production & GJ/km \\

$EI$ & energy intensity of transport per passenger kilometre & MJ/pkm\\
$FE$ & fuel economy of vehicle & L/100 vkm \\
$Lf$ & load factor of vehicle or mode &  \\
$Lg$ & lifespan of guideway & vehicle passes \\%(unles
$Lv$ & lifespan of vehicle & vkm \\%(unles

$m$ & mode of transport (e.g. car, train) & \\%(unles
$Oc$ & occupancy, the number of people in each vehicle & people/vehicle\\
$P$ & power & W (Js$^{-1}$) \\
$Q$ & circuity: route distance divided by Euclidean distance &\\
% Gap to separate the Roman symbols from the Greek
$\eta$ & energy conversion efficiency ($\frac{Energy\ in}{Energy\ out}$) & \\

$Toe$ & tonnes of oil equivalent &
}

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%\dedicatory{Dedicated to my mum and dad}

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% Include the chapters of the thesis, as separate files
% Just uncomment the lines as you write the chapters

\input{./Chapters/Chapter1} % Introduction
%
\input{./Chapters/Chapter2} % Literature review

\input{./Chapters/Chapter3} % Msim introduction

\input{./Chapters/Chapter4} % Data and methods

 \input{./Chapters/Chapter5} % Experiment 2
% %
 \input{./Chapters/Chapter6} % Results and Discussion

\input{./Chapters/Chapter7} % Conclusion

\input{./Chapters/Chapter8} % Conclusion

\input{./Chapters/Chapter9} % Conclusion

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\backmatter

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